The AI Act as a source of employers’ obligations in the use of artificial intelligence systems Słowa kluczowe

The article analyses selected provisions of the Artificial In­telligence Act (AI Act) concerning employers’ obligations related to the use of AI systems in the workplace, taking into account the employer’s role as a provider or a deploy­er under the Regulation. It seeks to determine whether the mechanisms adopted, including risk assessment and system classification, oversight requirements, information duties, and the Fundamental Rights Impact Assessment (FRIA), ensure effective standards of safety and respect for workers’ rights, or whether, due to the specific features of the employment relationship, they may prove of limited effectiveness.

Bibliografia/References

Almada, M., & Petit, N. (2025). The EU AI Act: Between the rock of product safety and the hard place of fundamental rights. Common Market Law Review, 62(1), 85–120. DOI: 10.54648/COLA2025004.

Aloisi, A., & De Stefano, V. (2023). Between risk mitigation and labour rights enforcement: Assessing the transatlantic race to govern AI-driven decision-making through a comparative lens. European Labour Law Journal, 14(2), 283–307. DOI: 10.1177/20319525231167982.

Aloisi, A., & De Stefano, V. (2025). AI at work, algorithmic bosses, and the ambivalence of automation. W: M. Biasi (red.), Artificial Intelli­gence and Labour Law. Osgoode Legal Studies Research Paper No. 5388774. SSRN. DOI: 10.2139/ssrn.5388774.

Baiocco, S., Fernandez-Macías, E., Rani, U., & Pesole, A. (2022). The algorithmic management of work and its implications in different contexts (JRC129749). Publications Office of the European Union. https://publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu/repository/handle/JRC129749.

Barankiewicz, T. (2022). Metody myślenia, badania prawa i systematyzacji wiedzy w naukach prawnych. W: H. Izdebski & A. Łazarska (red.), Metodologia dysertacji doktorskiej dla prawników. Teoria i praktyka. Wolters Kluwer.

Barłóg, M., & Pisarczyk, Ł. (2024). Polskie związki zawodowe w procesie zarządzania algorytmicznego w środowisku pracy. Studia z Zakresu Prawa Pracy i Polityki Społecznej. DOI: 10.4467/25444654SPP.24.013.19930.

Bąba, M. (2022). Logika algorytmów w świecie pracy ery technologicznej — nowe możliwości i nowe ograniczenia. Praca i Zabezpieczenie Społeczne, 2022(8), 3–14. DOI: 10.33226/0032-6186.2022.8.2.

Bąba, M. (2024). Employment with the use of artificial intelligence: Opportunities and risks. Studia z Zakresu Prawa Pracy i Polityki Społecz­nej, 31(3), 195–209.

Benlian, A., Wiener, M., Cram, W. A., et al. (2022). Algorithmic management: Bright and dark sides, practical implications, and research opportunities. Business & Information Systems Engineering, 64(6), 825–839. DOI: 10.1007/s12599-022-00764-w.

Bertaina, S., Biganzoli, I., Desiante, R., Fontanella, D., Inverardi, N., Penco, I. G., & Cosentini, A. C. (2025). Fundamental rights and artifi­cial intelligence impact assessment: A new quantitative methodology in the upcoming era of the AI Act. Computer Law & Security Review, 56, Article 106101. DOI: 10.1016/j.clsr.2024.106101.

Bogucki, A., Engler, C., Perarnaud, A., & Renda, A. (2022). The AI Act and emerging EU digital acquis: Overlaps, gaps and inconsistencies. CEPS. https://www.ceps.eu/ceps-publications/the-ai-act-and-emerging-eu-digital-acquis/.

Braun, T., & Harasimiuk, D. E. (2025). Legal, regulatory and ethical non-binary choices of the AI Act (1st ed.). Routledge. DOI: 10.4324/9781003449706.

Carey, S. (2025). Regulating uncertainty: Governing general-purpose AI models and systemic risk. European Journal of Risk Regulation, 16(1), 1–17. DOI: 10.1017/err.2025.10040.

Cristofolini, C. (2024). Navigating the impact of AI systems in the workplace: Strengths and loopholes of the EU AI Act from a labour per­spective. Italian Labour Law E-Journal, 17(1). DOI: 10.6092/issn.1561-8048/19796.

Davidov, G., & Langille, B. (red.). (2011). The idea of labour law. Oxford University Press. DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199693610.001.0001.

De Stefano, V. (2019). Negotiating the algorithm: Automation, artificial intelligence and labour protection. Comparative Labor Law & Policy Journal, 41(1). SSRN. https://ssrn.com/abstract=3178233.

Garcia-Godinez, M. (2025). A default framework for fundamental rights impact assessment. AI and Ethics, 5(5), 5149–5163. DOI: 10.1007/ s43681-025-00761-1.

Koivisto, I., Koulu, R., & Larsson, S. (2024). User accounts: How technological concepts permeate public law through the EU’s AI Act. Maastricht Journal of European and Comparative Law, 31(3), 412–432. DOI: 10.1177/1023263X241248469.

Laux, J., Wachter, S., & Mittelstadt, B. (2024). Trustworthy artificial intelligence and the European Union AI Act: On the conflation of trustworthiness and acceptability of risk. Regulation & Governance, 18(1), 3–32. DOI: 10.1111/rego.12512.

Minotakis, A. (2025). Regulating AI in the workplace: A critique of the EU AI Act and the Platform Work Directive through a worker-cen­tred lens. Platforms & Society, 2. DOI: 10.1177/29768624251396248.

Nowik, P. (2023). Definicja sztucznej inteligencji w nauce prawa pracy. Praca i Zabezpieczenie Społeczne, 2023(9), 3–10. DOI: 10.33226/0032- 6186.2023.9.2.

OECD. (2023). OECD Employment Outlook 2023: Artificial intelligence and the labour market. OECD Publishing, Paris. DOI: 10.1787/08785bba-en.

Özkiziltan, D., & Landini, F. (2025). Trustworthy and human-centric? The new governance of workplace AI technologies under the EU’s Ar­tificial Intelligence Act. Transfer: European Review of Labour and Research. Advance online publication. DOI: 10.1177/10242589251336193.

Paliokaitė, A., Christenko, A., Aloisi, A., Moore, P., Potocka-Sionek, N., Donoghue, R. S., Krūminas, P., Čop, D., Bednorz, J., Daminov, I., & Ragaliauskaitė, A. (2025). Study exploring the context, challenges, opportunities, and trends in algorithmic management (Final Report, VT-2022-035). Publications Office of the European Union. DOI: 10.2767/5629841.

Palmiotto, F. (2025). The AI Act roller coaster: The evolution of fundamental rights protection in the legislative process and the future of the regulation. European Journal of Risk Regulation, 16(0), 1–24. DOI: 10.1017/err.2024.97.

Prassl, J. (2018). Humans as a service: The promise and perils of work in the gig economy. Oxford University Press.

Pisarczyk, Ł. (2021). Stosunek pracy wobec zmian technologicznych. W: R. Babińska-Górecka, A. Przybyłowicz, K. Stopka, & A. Tomanek (red.), Prawo pracy i prawo socjalne: teraźniejszość i przyszłość. Księga jubileuszowa dedykowana Profesorowi Herbertowi Szurgaczowi. E-Wydawnictwo. Prawnicza i Ekonomiczna Biblioteka Cyfrowa, Wydział Prawa, Administracji i Ekonomii Uniwersytetu Wrocławskiego.

Raposo, V. L. (2025). Reflections on the AI Act: Brussels, do we have a problem? W: V. L. Raposo (red.), The European Artificial Intelligence Act: Promises and perils? (Law, Governance and Technology Series, t. 78). Springer Nature Switzerland. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-031-98406-8.

Veale, M., & Zuiderveen Borgesius, F. (2021). Demystifying the draft EU Artificial Intelligence Act: Analysing the good, the bad, and the unclear elements of the proposed approach. Computer Law Review International, 22(4), 97–112. DOI: 10.9785/cri-2021-220402.

Wood, A. J. (2021). Algorithmic management: Consequences for work organisation and working conditions (JRC Working Papers Series on Labour, Education and Technology, 2021/07). European Commission, Joint Research Centre (JRC).

Yusifli, Z. (2025). Labour rights and the EU Artificial Intelligence Act: How to get away with high-risk AI (SSRN Scholarly Paper No. 5098359). Social Science Research Network. DOI: 10.2139/ssrn.5098359.